Classifying Learning

I am constantly thinking about ways to improve classroom instruction, because I believe that the most important factor affecting student learning is the teacher and the most important characteristic of good teaching is an understanding of methods and strategies that engage students in authentic learning. When considering any process, it is beneficial to classify and differentiate among the various parts of the process.

In How We Think (1910) John Dewey identifies three types of study. The first has to do with the "acquisition of skill in performance;" the second involves the acquisition of knowledge; and the third is concerned with the development of reasoning or "abstract thinking." Many years later, Mortimer Adler wrote about three modes of teaching in his book The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto (1982). The three modes of teaching were differentiated according to the intended goals as "acquisition of organized knowledge," "development of intellectual skills," and "enlarged understandings of ideas and values."

The similarities between the two lists are easily recognizable and worth a moment of consideration. Both authors recognize that learning involves the acquisition of or perhaps the accumulation of knowledge, the development and refinement of skills, as well as the development of reasoning, or what I will call critical thinking. Neither author suggests that one type of study or teaching is better than the other. Neither author suggests that one type of study or teaching should be excluded. Adler does suggest that the development of understanding or reasoning is often neglected in classrooms, but he does not advocate that any of the modes of teaching be sacrificed to make room for more critical thinking.

It is important that teachers understand that there are different types of learning and different modes of teaching designed to meet the needs of the different types of learning. We should not teach only rote memorization, but we should teach some rote memorization. For that reason, I, as an English teacher, required my students to memorize poems and to recite them in front of the class.

We are dealing with whole students; therefore, we should address the whole student in our teaching.

One Thing Wordle

Our school improvement team surveyed the faculty recently. One of the questions was with asked what one thing would they recommend to make the school better. There were many responses, although only about half of the faculty responded to this question. Still, when looking at the responses, I wondered how we might reduce the wordage, allowing us to group responses to get a feel for the one thing that the majority believed would be most beneficial. So, I suggested using Wordle. Wordle creates from the transcript a word cloud, in which the words which appear most often in the transcript are larger. Clearly, Wordle discounts articles and prepositions and such, so the words that appear in the word cloud are the pertinent words from the transcript. Here is the word cloud we created:
from http://www.wordle.net

Unless you have much better eyes than I, many of the words are too small to read. The words also come at you lacking semantic relevance. It is a beautiful thing to look at, but I find myself still wondering what is the one thing that teachers believe will improve our school...Or am I being obtuse?

Is the most important thing "Teachers"?

Plagiarism

My school recently experienced a rash of plagiarism, probably brought on by the pending ending of the grading period. This has prompted me to address plagiarism. There are plenty of books, web sites, and people suggesting that cheating is on the rise in America, so that is not my purpose. Instead, I would like to suggest that there are (at least) two different forms of plagiarism and (at least) two ways to respond to plagiarism.

The two types of plagiarism are "plagiarism of omission" and "plagiarism of commission." A student commits plagiarism of omission when she neglects to provide the proper documentation--fails to place quotation marks around a passage that is clearly taken directly from the source, provides no reference to the source from which the ideas came, or turns in a poorly organized "Works Cited" page. I call these acts plagiarism of omission because the student has left out important information giving credit to the source. Students make these mistakes out of confusion, a lack of understanding, and frustration--a natural part of the learning process.

Plagiarism of commission, on the other hand, is a conscious and deliberate act of deception. When one commits plagiarism, the intent is to deceive, to take advantage of another person's trust and to reap the benefits that may follow, provided that the deception is not detected.

There are generally two responses to plagiarism. The first and perhaps most common (at least at the secondary level of education) is to punish the student by denying credit for the work. In the clear case of plagiarism of commission, this is an appropriate reaction, although I will suggest that the perpetrator knew the risk he was taking and is probably not effected by the punishment. Without some required intervention, the student is likely to plagiarize again, knowing that the next teacher is not likely to catch him.

The second response is to turn the offense into a learning opportunity, allowing the student to correct the errors. A loss of some credit may be warranted--which is up to the teacher--but the student is allowed a chance to redeem her credibility, to learn the proper way to avoid plagiarism, and to develop a trust in her teacher as someone she can turn to for guidance in her learning. I suggest that this response is more appropriate when a student is suspected of plagiarism of omission.

Real learning is about taking chances, making mistakes, and correcting those mistakes. Certainly, a part of learning involves the decisions one makes to document correctly the information one includes in an essay and the consequences of those decisions. However, dropping the hammer of justice on every student who plagiarizes may inhibit learning. I suggest teachers consider whether a student is guilty of plagiarism of commission or of plagiarism of omission before passing sentence, and that teachers not allow a teachable moment to slip away because of righteousness.

One final thought: The information teachers present to their classes in handouts, PowerPoint presentations, and such are often taken from a variety of supplemental sources. To what extent does the teacher demonstrate a responsibility to document correctly the sources he or she uses? If we want our students to be responsible and to adhere to the rules protecting copyright, then we must be sure to demonstrate that responsibility at all times.

Okay...so here's a humorous look at plagiarism that I found on TeacherTube...

In the Moment

During my training in Socratic Seminars, there was a phrase that still echoes in my mind, holding much deliberate relevance to an almost intuitive understanding of the learning process: "Stay in the moment." I am currently reading Oliver Sacks book, Musicophilia, and have encountered the following concerning music: "Listening to music is not a passive process but intensely active, involving a stream of inferences, hypotheses, expectations, and anticipations..." Shortly after, Sacks refers to the work of Victor Zuckerkandl who writes in Sound and Symbol, " Hearing a melody is hearing, having heard, and being about to hear, all at once." In my mind, these three thoughts are all interrelated and imperative to an understanding of the workings of the mind with regard to learning, though not exclusively so.

When one is in the moment of listening, studying, engaging in dialogue, or playing a piece of music (and on this latter I am surmising for although I have long played the guitar, I am far from being an accomplished musician), one is drawing on past knowledge while simultaneously confronting the information of the moment and anticipating the next moment. To "stay in the moment" was, without a doubt, a call not to allow the remembrances of things past or the anticipation of things yet to come to distract one from the now, the moment of occurrence. However, I now suggest that staying in the moment does suggest that one will be simultaneously aware of the now, the then, and the yet to be, but that such awareness occurs perhaps subconsciously as a mental process. "Staying in the moment," in the here and now, is a means of suspending the intrusion of memory and anticipation to experience what is being seen, heard, felt with greater poignancy, deepening the experience and leading to learning--if one accepts that learning emerges first from experience.

I am reminded of a passage from Anne Rice's book, Interview with the Vampire (a most excellent read that surprised me with nearly every turn of the page). I can only summarize the passage here--for I am staying in the moment and loathe to run off to find the passage, fearing that I might lose my way in my thinking. In the book, the author wrote how the one vampire (I apologize for not remembering the names--It has been several years since I read the text.) listened to the other vampire the way we always hoped someone would listen to us, not waiting to pounce on the next pause but hearing every word while also sensing the tone of the words, the timbre of the voice, the intonation of the eyes and facial features. It was listening as if what was being said was important. And THAT is what each of us longs for in being heard. And THAT is what it means to stay in the moment.

Similarly, when one is speaking or writing--as I am doing here at 4 a.m. (I don't care what time it says this posts. I'm up early.)--when one is speaking or writing, one must concentrate to stay in the moment, to hear his own words and weigh their import--knowing vaguely where one wants to go, remembering vaguely where one has been, but focusing for the moment on where one is. In Sacks book, he writes how in performance the multi-dimensional awareness helps us to move through the performance. Knowing simultaneously where we have been and where we are going helps us to deal with where we are. If we were to think too intently upon each individual step we take, we might find ourselves unable to walk.

I distinguish this from the staying in the moment advocated in Socratic Seminars and in learning relative to finding one's way on stepping stones to cross a creek. If I have crossed that creek a hundred times, I am likely not to break stride but to step lightly from stone to stone to find myself on the other side without a second thought. But encountering the creek for the first time, I am much more cautious and likely to slip and end up wet to my knees. And THAT is staying in the moment.

So what? Allow me to suggest an action. Listen, not waiting for the next pause so that you may pounce upon the conversation and demand the attention of those you are talking at, but the way you want people to listen to you. Whether you are listening to your students, to parents, to colleagues, to your children, or to your spouse, listen. Then, when it is time to speak, begin by restating what you have heard so that the other person can know that you have listened, then speak. This brings up another cliche from Socratic Seminar training: Seek first to understand, then to be understood.

From time to time...choose to stay in the moment.

Sometimes it's about hope...

When I first became a teacher, my colleagues listened to my visions and dreams of what I hoped to accomplish as a teacher. They chuckled and said I was idealistic. One stated that a few years in the classroom would remove the idealism from me, and the others all agreed.

I'm happy to declare that I continue to cling to my idealism. I live by the motto that the world will be a better place because I have lived. This is not some egotistical statement of self-worth but a challenge to me to do something good today and every day. And I don't believe that our efforts have to be enormous and I don't believe that anyone has to recognize the good we do, but we still have to do good.

A colleague sent the YouTube video out to all the staff in our building. The message is brilliant in its presentation and speaks of hope. I hope you enjoy it.

Jing, a way to share ideas online

Last semester I was taking a class online through Indiana State University. My instructor had given us an assignment involving conducting research. I had always thought I was proficient at doing online research through a university library, but I was having problems. So, I emailed my professor who sent me a link that provided a live tutorial guiding me through the process. It was helpful and I was amazed. I asked her how she did that and she told me about Jing.

More recently, I have been asked to make a presentation about Jing to teachers. I think the best thing I could do is present Jing using Jing. So, here is my Jing presentation introducing Jing:


You'll see, I really didn't do much work. Hope you can find hundreds of uses for this.

Process or Product and Assigning Grades

Recently a teacher expressed that his students would not have any grades for several weeks in his class because the students were working on a big project. Students would have a single grade when the project was completed. I question the validity of this type of thinking. As educators, are we interested only in the product or are we also interested in the process? Another way to phrase this is to ask whether we provide formative assessment or only summative assessment.

In his book Educative Assessment (1998) Grant Wiggins--famous for his work with Jay McTighe and Understanding by Design--states "the aim of assessment is primarily to educate and improve student performance, not merely to audit it." We can move from these concepts to use of the terms formative and summative assessment. In his book Classroom Assessement & Grading that Work (2006) Robert Marzano provides a definition of formative and summative assessment. He stated that formative assessment is "occurring while knowledge is being learned," whereas summative assessment occurs "at the end of the learning episode." Marzano cites Peter Airasian in further defining formative assessment as "interactive and used primarily to form or alter an ongoing process or activity." In other words, formative assessment addresses the process of learning as opposed to addressing only the product.

Now, the teachers in my school have recently been inundated with the learning trend of the moment: project-based learning (PBL). Therefore, they are all working diligently to engage their students in meaningful, hands-on, collaborative projects, with the purpose of making learning increasingly relevant and, therefore, more meaningful to the students and, consequently, more effective. (That is a quick summary of the philosophy behind PBL.) I know that the teachers are guiding students during the process of the learning; they are good teachers. However, some teachers find ways to provide students with grades along the way and others are waiting for the product grade when the project is finished. The handbook that has been provided to some of the teachers--Project Based Learning, second edition by the Buck Institute for Education--states that "the assessment plan should include both formative assessments--assessments that allow you to give feedback as the project progresses--and summative assessments--assessments that provide studens with a culminating appraisal of their performance."

I am going to suggest that the formative assessments may and should result--from time to time and on a regular basis--in the assignment of grades that can be posted. As parents and students are now accustom to checking grades 24/7 through online access, the grades provided for process help to inform the student and parent of progress and help to hold the student more accountable for the work. It is a way to provide timely feedback to guide instruction and learning.

Marzano also stated in his book that effective classroom assessments should meet four purposes:

1. Provide students with a clear picture of their progress on learning goals and how they might improve.
2. Encourage students to improve.
3. Be formative in nature.
4. Be frequent.

My suggestion is that formative assessment can result in the recording of grades that can be communicated to parents and students. Perhaps there is a valid argument against the use of grades completely, but that is for another time.